Purchase intentions for ready to eat products

Purchase intentions for ready to eat products Research Question: The research focuses on determining the consumer preferences and purchase intentions for packaged and ready to eat food products. Moreover, we also look into how and to what extent factors like relationship of social, demographics, psychographic/ lifestyle, personal and external media influences the purchase decision Synthesis and Application Consumer decision- making styles in short, shopping styles like lifestyles, are a prominent area of interest in consumer behaviour studies. Consumer choice processes vary according to the type of product involved, the timing and the people involved (Burns Gentry, 1990:520). Although brand decision-making represents a fair amount of deliberation during consumer decision making, it does not represent the whole consumer decision-making process (Harrel, 1990:739). (Alet C Erasmus, Elizabeth Boshoff and GG Rousseau, 2001) Consumers purchasing decisions take place over a period of time. The overall goal during this decision process is to evaluate various alternatives and choose the product that satisfies the consumer in an optimal way. Consumers get influenced by several major factors while they make their decisions. These factors can be grouped as social, cultural, pscyhological, and personal factors( Kotler Armstrong, 1997: 141). In addition, increase in the number and variety of goods, stores, and shopping malls, and the availability of multicomponent products and electronic purchasing capabilities have broadened the sphere for consumer choice and led to complicated decision making. (Hafstrom et al., 1992). One or more specific shopping styles dimensions may influence consumer-shopping choices, and these influences are relatively enduring (Sproles and Kendall, 1986). Broadly speaking, these are 3 types of approaches in studying consumer decision-making styles: Psychographic/lifestyle approach, which identifies hundreds of characteristics related to consumer behaviour; Consumer typology approach, which classifies consumers into several types; Consumer characteristics approach, which focuses on different cognitive dimensions of consumer decision-making (Fan et al., 1998). Since ready to eat packaged food has met a stiff resistance on health grounds, the decision maker in the family is also an important aspect. Prior research in this area has found that mothers make the purchasing decisions for monthly food expenditures of the family however, fathers carry out the act of purchasing. Promotional activities such as commercials, new product development efforts, packaging, pricing distribution strategies all play a significant role in determining the person that makes the purchasing decision in the family (Elif Akagà ¼n Ergin, Handan ÃÆ'-zdemir, Bà ¼lent ÃÆ'-zsaà §macÄ ±, 2005) Sproles and Kendall (1986) developed a Consumer Style Inventory (CSI) based on the assumption that consumer decision-making behaviour can be explained by eight central decision-making dimensions that influence a consumers decision making behaviour. The eight decision-making style dimensions were: perfectionism/high-quality consciousness, brand consciousness, novelty consciousness, price/value consciousness, impulsive/careless shoppers, recreational and hedonistic shopping consciousness, confused by over-choice shoppers, and habitual and brand/store loyal shoppers. Despite the eight-dimensional structure being confirmed in the original study, there are indications that the eight-factor model does not hold good in real life. Packaged food industry: Consumer behaviour Favorable nutrition information presented on a Nutrition Facts panel also led to more positive attitudes toward the product, nutrition, and purchase intentions and reduced perceived disease risk. The effects of the nutrition information on all dependent variables were more pronounced in the menu context than in the package context, even though the nutrient values were identical. (John C. Kozup, Elizabeth H. Creyer, Scot Burton, 2003). Moreover, that social class is basically inferior to income as a correlate of buying behavior for the consumer packaged goods. Perhaps some types of packaged foods not covered in this study would have shown greater purchasing relationships with social class; e.g., frozen shrimp and other types of cocktail snacks. (Myers, Stanton and Haug, 1971) These products tend to be criticized because:-   They typically are high in fat and calorie contents The reduced time cost and nutritional content associated with these foods is specifically blamed for obesity Sometimes Genetically Modified Foods are used Sometimes an irradiation process is used If heat processing is used the vitamins are lost Preservatives are always used Packaged food: Indian market In developing countries like India, the preferences of the consumers clearly indicate their priority for cleanliness/freshness of food products followed by price, quality, variety, packaging, and non-seasonal availability. The consumers preference of marketplace largely depends on the convenience in purchasing at the marketplace along with the availability of additional services, attraction for children, basic amenities and affordability (Jabir Ali, Sanjeev Kapoor, Janakiraman Moorthy, 2010) Consumer demand for detailed information regarding content and nutrition of packaged food products is likely to increase due to booming organized retail sector in India. There is awareness about different types of information on the food labels displayed on packaged food products, however, usage of such information as one of the criteria while purchasing packaged food product is relatively low. Indian consumers assign very high importance to information about food ingredients and nutritional contents of the food. They also have very strong preference for brand and the taste of the product. This preference makes them purchase a packaged food item even though it may not meet their criteria of healthy food or may contain some harmful ingredients. Most lifestyle products such as breakfast cereals, readymade dressings etc. that would mostly be used by people who have relatively higher levels of income and education would pay more attention to various kinds of label information. Moreover, the awareness regarding label information is dependent on the consumers level of education, income and kind of occupation. (Sushil Kumar and Anuttera Pandit, 2005) Additionally, researchers have also shown that as convenience becomes the goal for households, with an increase in the number of urban population, working women and income levels, RTE has become the fastest growing sub-segment in the packaged food category. However, in India home cooked food is the first choice. At the moment, regional and non-vegetarian cuisines are relatively under-serviced, with concentration on the vegetarian. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The Research Design chosen is: Exploratory Research: Secondary Data Articles, Journals , Depth Interviews, Focus Group Discussions Conclusive Research: Descriptive Survey and Observation Firstly an exploratory research was conducted to gain insights and understanding about consumer buying behavior and customer preferences vis a vis RTE food products. This was done through the review of academic literature and depth interviews of retailers to identify relevant psychographic factors influencing customer purchase decisions. Secondly descriptive research has been undertaken in order to Profile the heavy users( frequent shoppers) of RTE products Quantitatively analyze the specified population exhibiting certain behavior regarding customer preferences Understand the degree of association of marketing variables with respect to packaged food products Make suitable recommendations. Data will be collected through structured questionnaires designed for the consumers. Depth interviews will be conducted for Retailers in Kozhikode. These responses have been analyzed by various statistical methods. Pretesting: Since our questionnaire has a majority of multiple choice questions there was a possibility of encountering order/position bias. This was done away with by having various sample forms filled with orders of questions as well as choices changed and finally the present form was frozen. The wording of certain questions was also changed after some rounds to pretesting making them more effective for understanding. For example Question 9 in the questionnaire has been changed from e.g. Before Pretesting: Q8. What influences your decision for the food products that you consume? After Pretesting:Q8. What influences your (as an individual) decision on choice of food products you purchase? Sampling technique Sampling methods are classified as either  probability  or  non-probability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In non-probability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling Random sampling  is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. Systematic sampling  is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. Stratified sampling  is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Convenience sampling  is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. Judgment sampling  is a common non-probability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually an extension of convenience sampling. Quota sampling  is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. Snowball sampling  is a non-probability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. Sampling technique that we will use in our research will be the Convenient Sampling. The data will be collected through soliciting responses to the questionnaire designed for the study. The respondents will be contacted either in person or through e-mail. Sampling frame: Sampling frame is the actual set of units from which a sample has been drawn. In the ideal case, the sampling frame should coincide with the population of interest. For our research, the sampling frame that we will use consists of retail shops, groceries stores and malls. This sampling frame will ensure that the respondents chosen for the survey are the actual consumers/customers of the ready to eat food. E-mail will also be used to as a medium of data gathering. Since the people who usually consume the ready to eat food belongs to the relatively younger age group, the use of e-mail to invite the response will make sure that the survey is directed to the right target population. Sample size: The  sample size  of a  statistical sample  is the number of observations that constitute it. A larger sample size leads to increased  precision  in estimates of various properties of the  population. The sample size of 200 has been chosen for the survey. As according to central limit theorem, a sample of size of minimum 30 observations is required to perform statistical analysis. This sample was large enough to provide the data which could be further used for analysis and interpretation. Data Collection: The data will be collected through the questionnaires. The questionnaires will be filled either through soliciting replies through e-mails or contacting respondents personally. Thus the primary source of the data will be used in the analysis. Data Analysis We have designed our questionnaire such that the responses would give us nominal and interval data. We will be using the following techniques to analyze this data Univariate/ Bivariate Analysis Correlation and regression Multivariate Techniques such as cluster analysis, factor analysis (as applicable) ANNEXURE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) Introduction The purpose of the discussion was to conduct evaluative research to determine (in order of priority) Understand the perception of the target audience about Packaged Ready to eat food Identify the main factors that influence a buyer to buy the products Understand the need of getting varieties in the ready to eat food material Identify the consumer preference of ready to eat food products Target Audience As per our understanding, ready to eat food would be generally preferred by Married women who dont get time to cook food Young working professionals and college students who stay in flats as bachelors Working population who travel a lot Focus Group Attributes There were 6 participants and discussion was moderated by a moderator. We selected participants from the PGP13 and PGP14 batches of IIM Kozhikode such that there were 2 female students who got married and were working before joining IIM K shared their past experiences 2 students (1 male and 1 female) who joined as freshers shared their experiences as graduation students and also as MBA students 2 students (both males) shared their experiences while they were working in jobs that involved a lot of travelling, before joining IIM K Seating pattern was as shown in the figure P3 P4 P22 P- Focused Group participants P5 P6 P1 M- Moderator M Beginning the Focus Group Discussion: The moderator welcomed the group with his introduction and facilitated introduction of the group too Moderator gave an overview of the topic This is an attempt to know the preferences regarding Packaged Ready to Eat foods from the young bachelors, from working women as they have to take care of the food at home and manage time also and from college going students who have scarcity of time and also look for variety and different taste in the products Subsequently the moderator set the ground rules. The moderator used predetermined questions and an assistant moderator took careful notes. Topics Discussed in the group Question: If ready to eat products are easily available in the market how many of you would like to purchase? Discussion: The group members had different preferences. Some members were concerned about the variety of products available and the price for the quantity. There was a small discussion around the usage of the pack and time factor. One member talked about how he started buying RTE as he stayed alone and this was very convenient to make and it gets ready in few minutes. It saves a lot of time and energy. Ranking was given to different attributes and the final rankings are as follows Taste Time saving activity Easier availability Increased convenience Food variety Price Question: What kind of options should be present in packaged food that you would plan to purchase? Discussion: Everyone was of the opinion that instant mix and packaged snacks like pasta, vermicelli, noodles and ready to cook Indian curries are essential. The final ranking was as follows: Confectionary (preferred across the group) Instant open and eat (preferred by young population) Instant mix to cook like dosa powder, gulab jamun mix (preferred by female users) Frozen food like peas, sweet corn (used for quick preparation of food by married women) Question: Are you brand loyal or would you be ready to switch to a different brand? Discussion: The group was split between brand-loyal and non brand-loyal customers. Brand loyal customers specified major brands like MTR, Kelloggs, ITC when they went for buying RTE foods. And the non brand- loyal customers switched among products whichever they found the best in taste or always looked for a change or went for trials of new products. However, even the brand loyal customers showed inclination to change brand if variety and better taste is available in novelty products. Question: Are you too particular about the cuisine in RTE foods? Discussion: The group consensually came to a conclusion that it preferred different cuisines depending on the time of the day. 1. Chinese- cup noodles, noodles, soups (evening snacks) 2. Mexican- cornmeal (in the morning hours) 3. Italian- Pasta, Bread 4. Indian- gravy, ready mix (main course) Question: Where do you usually shop for Ready to eat foods? Discussion: People had different options for shopping since RTE foods are easily available in the market. They mentioned the following options available whichever was closer to their residence Retail outlet Shopping malls Kirana stores Confectionary stores Question: What influences your decision on choice of food you purchase? Discussion: The group members were influenced by several factors while making a decision to buy a particular product from the various options available in the market of RTE foods. A list of influential factors which they specified is as follows: Advertisements Prior usage experience Friends/ neighbors Retailer on the shop Question: Do you consider price as a major criterion to choose among the products available? Discussion: Most of the group members said that price was not as important a criterion as taste and quality. Moreover the price range of these kinds of products was within range of Rs 50-100, it didnt play a very big role in buying decision process. Inference From the following inferences of the focus group discussion, we designed our questionnaire People do take cuisine into consideration while purchasing packaged food. Taste was the most important criterion followed by ease in making and time consumed. Time was a major factor too as the target segment was young and working population and for them time is always scarce and critical. Word of mouth also played an important role in considering new products for consumption. Value for money in terms of quality and variety was considered to a certain extent before buying a packaged food product. QUESTIONNAIRE Questionnaire instructions Please answer all the questions Unless specified, please select only one option as a response for each question Questionnaire design Q1. Do you buy ready-to-eat (Packaged) food? 1 = Yes 2 = No Q2. In a typical week, how often do you buy packaged food? 1 = Less than once 2 = 1 to 3 times 3 = 4 to 6 times 4 = More than 6 times Q3. Why do you buy packaged food? (More than one option can be chosen) 1 = Convenience 2 = Taste 3 = Nutrition 4 = Quality 5=Price 6 = any other reason, please specify _______________ Q4. Please indicate your food preference. 1 = Vegetarian 2 = Non-vegetarian 3 = Both Q5. What cuisine do you prefer? (More than one option can be chosen) 1= Indian 2 = Chinese 3 = Italian 4 = Mexican 5 = Others, please specify _______________ Q6. Generally during which phase of week do you consume packaged food? 1=Monday to Friday 2=Saturday to Sunday = All days Q7. From where do you buy processed food? (More than one option can be chosen) 1=Retail outlet 2=Shopping malls 3=Kirana stores 4=Confectionary stores, 5=Others, please specify _______________ Q8. What influences your (as an individual) decision on choice of food products you purchase? (More than one option can be chosen) 1 = Children 2 = Advertisements 3 = Spouse 4 = Friends 5 = Retailer on the shop 6 = Others Q9. What is your age group? 1 = 15 to 25 years 2 = 25 to 35 years 3 = 35 to 45 years 4 = Above 45 years Q10. What is your occupation? 1 = Student 2 = Public Service 3 = Private Service 4 = Self-employed 5 = Homemaker 6 = Other, please specify _______________ Q11. Do you live with your family? 1 = Yes 2 = No Q12. What is your monthly income (in Rs.)? 1 = Below 15000 2 = 15000-25000 3 = 25000-35000 4 = Above 35000 5 = cannot disclose Q13. Usually, where do you consume packaged food? 1 = Home 2 = Workplace 3 = Both 4 = Other Q14. On a scale of 5, how satisfied are you with the packaged food, where 1 is least satisfied and 5 is highly satisfied? 1 2 3 4 5 Q15. On a scale of 5, how likely are you to recommend packaged food to others, where 1 is least likely and 5 is highly likely? 1 2 3 4 5 DEPTH INTERVIEW OF RETAILERS We plan to have depth interviews with 1-2 retails and ask them following questions: Which category of food sells more? Which type of packaged food is preferred? Do you have refrigeration facilities? For how many years you have been in the retail business? How many customers visit your shop every day? Which is the peak hour of your business? What age group of customers visits your shop? Which type of customers prefers packaged food? Has the sales of packaged food changed over the last three years?

Essay --

Seamus Heaney, the poet with extravagant creativity and strong emotional authority over his poems has designed two effective long poems, 'Digging' and 'Punishment'. While both the poems deal with fairly different issues, they do have some strong mutual connections which make engross readers into the dealings described in the poems. Both topics deal with great emotional holds and a bit of melancholy, 'Punishment' more so than 'Digging'. In the poems, the poet recollects past events and relates them greatly to the present activities. These are to be broadly discussed in the later parts of this piece, how the past has been adhered to the present and how this is affecting recent events. In Seamus Heaney's 'Digging', the speaker admittedly prefers writing to doing work in the garden like his father and grandfather did before him, mainly digging, though he still admires them for what they did. In the poet's latter poem, 'Punishment', the narrator is very melancholic over not being able to do anything about the unbearable cruelty humans convey towards other humans through horrific punishments that have been going on for centuries. One deals with a bit of sadness involving personal attachments while the other poem deals with sadness, but in great deal involving a issue in general. Past events play integral parts in both the poems and help continue to express the ideas intended by the poet. Title is probably the most important aspect of a poem or story other than the author's identity. It's the title that attracts the normal readers to check out a certain poem, considering the reader is not familiar with the author's stand in the world of poetry and writing. 'Digging' is probably the most suitable and logical title of the poem. But is the... ...'s had to receive and by observing those events through his eyes he can feel the sufferings of those women in his mind. Both these phrases are in my opinion the most significant parts of the respective poems, 'Digging' and 'Punishment'. Both the pieces are masterpieces created by Seamus Heaney which deal with the complexities of the social life a certain human may endure. Expertly devised, the poems bestow great insights into the minds of the speakers of the two poems and how past events have greatly mannered their respective lifestyles. Memories are hard to overcome and this fact has been greatly demonstrated in these two poems, and how thinking of the past can modify the mentality of a human being. The emotional impacts of both the poems are immense and very prominent, and we can only commend Seamus Heaney for presenting us with such intelligent pieces of writing. Essay -- Seamus Heaney, the poet with extravagant creativity and strong emotional authority over his poems has designed two effective long poems, 'Digging' and 'Punishment'. While both the poems deal with fairly different issues, they do have some strong mutual connections which make engross readers into the dealings described in the poems. Both topics deal with great emotional holds and a bit of melancholy, 'Punishment' more so than 'Digging'. In the poems, the poet recollects past events and relates them greatly to the present activities. These are to be broadly discussed in the later parts of this piece, how the past has been adhered to the present and how this is affecting recent events. In Seamus Heaney's 'Digging', the speaker admittedly prefers writing to doing work in the garden like his father and grandfather did before him, mainly digging, though he still admires them for what they did. In the poet's latter poem, 'Punishment', the narrator is very melancholic over not being able to do anything about the unbearable cruelty humans convey towards other humans through horrific punishments that have been going on for centuries. One deals with a bit of sadness involving personal attachments while the other poem deals with sadness, but in great deal involving a issue in general. Past events play integral parts in both the poems and help continue to express the ideas intended by the poet. Title is probably the most important aspect of a poem or story other than the author's identity. It's the title that attracts the normal readers to check out a certain poem, considering the reader is not familiar with the author's stand in the world of poetry and writing. 'Digging' is probably the most suitable and logical title of the poem. But is the... ...'s had to receive and by observing those events through his eyes he can feel the sufferings of those women in his mind. Both these phrases are in my opinion the most significant parts of the respective poems, 'Digging' and 'Punishment'. Both the pieces are masterpieces created by Seamus Heaney which deal with the complexities of the social life a certain human may endure. Expertly devised, the poems bestow great insights into the minds of the speakers of the two poems and how past events have greatly mannered their respective lifestyles. Memories are hard to overcome and this fact has been greatly demonstrated in these two poems, and how thinking of the past can modify the mentality of a human being. The emotional impacts of both the poems are immense and very prominent, and we can only commend Seamus Heaney for presenting us with such intelligent pieces of writing.

Fight Club- Rebellion in Society Essay

In the novel Fight Club, Chuck Palahniuk uses the Fight Club, Project Mayhem, and its members to illustrate their need to rebel against the aspects of society they deem flawed. One of the main characters, Tyler Durden, acts as the protagonist and the antagonist in many different ways. Tyler, along with the narrator of the book start up a fight club so that they could let their frustrations at their lives and society out in a fist fight. The main thing about this is that its not about the fighting to them, its about the release and the freedom. It allows them to rebel against what society regards as normal and perfect. Most guys are at fight club because of something theyre too scared to fight. After a few fights, youre afraid a lot less (54). The men are at fight club because of something in their life thats not going the way they feel it should, or rather how society says it should. Fight club lets them realize that its ok because life isnt all that great anyhow. Tyler preaches that they will all die one day so they might as well accept that, because once they can accept their fate, they would be free to do anything. Until they could do that, they were useless to him because Tyler needed people who hit rock bottom. Palahniuk emphasizes that society has grown increasingly materialistic and that all people do are work at jobs they hate to buy things they dont need. Project Mayhem was started in the novel to be the buffer, a sort of socio-terrorist movement to rebel against society and bring it down to how they feel it should be. Tylers philosophy was that if everyone went back to zero and had to start all over, then things would be better. Attempting to give people what they thought were better lives were their acts of rebellion against society. Works Cited Fight Club, Chuck Palahniuk

Various Models of Consumer Behaviour - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2767 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Research paper Level High school Did you like this example? Introduction This study uncovered that the field of consumer behaviour represents a broad ranging category where marketers seek to understand individual and group motivations, reactions and responses to varied product and service situations (Solomon et al, 2009). It found the processes and activities undertaken by consumers regarding the stages and steps of the decision and buying process (Gupta et al, 2004). The cognitive approach was found to look at consumer perceptions in processing information that acknowledges social and environmental experiences (Watson and Spence, 2007). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Various Models of Consumer Behaviour" essay for you Create order Humanistic models delve into behavioural perspectives as opposed to the perception aspects of the cognitive approach. The above summary of the two major consumer categories represented the basis for understanding how they guide the differing models and theories under each. It was ascertained that in terms of cognitive and humanistic, the varied theories and models under them all have special attributes. These represent the basis for the selection of the theory or model suited to individual product or service categories. Cognitive Models Bray (2008) explained that the cognitive approach is credited to Hebbs Stimulus Organism Response model that was introduced in the early 1950s. Hebbs model states that there is a linear relationship concerning the impact of stimuli. This concept has been criticised by Kahle and Close (2006) along with Tyagi and Kumar (2004), who state that the Hebbs model lacks the capacity to account for past experiences as its shortcoming. Bray (2008) explains that people usually respond to the cognitive aspects of their environments, and that these cognitive areas are related to the parameters and processes of learning. He adds that feelings, behaviours and thoughts are connected in a casual manner. Regarding behavioural facets, it emphasises processes connected to human behaviour such as environmental stimuli and their behavioural responses (Zimmerman, 2008). Cognitive Model Consumer Decision Consumer decisions under the cognitive designation consist of three models (Bauer et al, 2006). These represent the utility, satisficing, and prospect theories (Steel and Konig, 2006). The utility theory proposes that people make their decisions based upon expected outcomes (Steel and Konig, 2006). It also views consumers as actors that are rational and able to foresee or estimate the potential outcomes of decisions they make that include the potential for uncertainty. This is a flaw in the utility theory as the unknown end utility functionality of a purchase is debatable at best. Cognitive Model Satisficing Model The satisficing model is a newer alternative to the utility model that was first proposed in the 1700s by Nicholas Bernoulli (Richrme, 2005). It represents larger and longer term consumer decisions. In many cases, good enough is the explanation for this type of decision process (Richrme, 2005). Elements of the utility theory are included in the satisficing model, but since the decision is made less often, consumers tend to accept a different basis for purchase or decision making then those products that are replaced more often (Richrme, 2005). The limitations of funds to purchase exactly what one prefers is a constraint under this consumer behavioural model that in most cases causes consumers to settle as opposed to optimising their decision to meet all of their wants and desires (Bray, 2008). Bray (2008) argues that in many causes the optimal purchase cannot be determined, and that consumers tend to lack the capacity to find the best purchase option. Cognitive Model Prospect Theory The prospect theory was developed in the mid 1970s by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). It added value to replace utility. Value represents a point of reference that consumers can use to determine the gains or losses from a purchase (Camerer et al, 2011). The prospect theory helps to explain aspects of consumer behaviour that are not completely explained under the utility theory. These represent the emotional connection and the potential that the extent of a problem is not fully understood (Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). These are strengths of the prospect theory over the utility and satisficing theories. Camerer et al (2011) found that the prospect theory might predict outcomes that are not accurate due to the fact it does not consider the characteristics of decision makers regarding their past history, and the context of the decision areas represented by the type of purchase (large versus small ticket items in terms of price or frequency). Cognitive Models Theory of Buyer Behaviour The theory of buyer behaviour represents an approach to analyse and predict the method that consumers use in making their purchase decisions (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). In many cases, a consumer will use a generic decision making model (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). The first step generally represents them conducting research on varied products and prices. In most cases the process is prompted by replacing a product the consumer already owns that has become outdated or no longer works (Calonius, 2006). In order to understand the considerations in the process, the following provides an illustration of the factors: Figure 1 Model of Consumer Buying Considerations Affecting the Buying Process (Friesner, 2014, p. 1) Friesner (2014) adds that understanding consumer buyer behaviour entails how it links to the marketing mix represented by price, place, promotion and product. He advises that marketers and consumers are intertwined as the former modify their approaches to c reate a climate for consumer action, and that that the reaction of consumers causes continued modifications to the 4Ps. The above explains the strength and weakness of buying behaviour as it is based on the parameters of past and current consumer motivations, and actions. This same strength also represents a weakness as new products; better information availability (such as the Internet) and shifting product reputations mean that buying behaviour patterns and rationales are consistently changing (Calonius, 2006). Cognitive Models Theory of Reasoned Action The theory of reasoned action is a method to predict behaviour, attitude and intention (Cooke and French, 2006). It separates intention from behavioural aspects that provide the framework to explain the impact of attitude (Hale et al, 2002). The main tenets are based on attitude, behavioural intention and subjective norm (Cooke and French, 2006). Attitude represents the beliefs formed by a consumer concerning a behavioural approach that include the assessment of what the consequences might be. Behavioural intention looks at the strength of an individuals intention in performing a behaviour, with the subjective norm representing perceived expectations based on other people or groups, and how a person measures up to these norms (Cooke and French, 2006). The weakness of reasoned action is that the sum of the comparison group forms the basis for measurement. If the intentions, subjective norms or attitude are improperly gathered, it negatively affects the outcome. Cognitive Models Theory of Planned Behaviour The theory of planned behaviour connects behaviour and beliefs (Ajzen, 2011). It is an improvement on the theory of reasoned action as it adds perceived behavioural control to attitude, behavioural intention and subjective norm (Ajzen, 2011). The addition of perceived behavioural control looks into the perceptions individuals carry regarding their capability to perform a type of behaviour (Kraft et al, 2005). This is the strength of the theory as it delves into the potential presence of factors that may impede or aid behaviour performance. Conversely, it also represents a weakness because if the perception does not accurately reflect actual behavioural control, it can cause incorrect conclusions or assumptions (Kraft et al, 2005). Humanistic Models Humanistic models of consumer behaviour are close to the behavioural perspective with some key differences (Wong, 2006). It is defined by Davis and Palladino (2010) as focusing on areas that can be observed and emphasises the learned nature of such behaviours. The humanistic model places emphasis on the individual and their psychodynamic determinants that consist of behaviours that can be observed and their reaction to external stimuli (Wong, 2006). Humanistic models also take into account the psychology represented by Maslows hierarchy of needs that observed people tend to be motivated by rewards or unconscious desires (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Figure 2 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Burton, 2012, p. 1) Maslow refers to the four bottom tiers as representing deficiency needs (Anderson, 2014). He explains that individuals become anxious when these needs are not met or if they are under threat. The top tier represents growth as it permits individuals to employ self-actuali sation that include independence, objectivity, awareness, creativity and honesty (Anderson, 2014). Bourdieu (Trigg, 2004) along with Rouse (2004) and others have criticised Maslows hierarchy of needs as being too schematic (meaning too planned or structured) and as lacking in scientific principles. Others such as Oleson (2004) and Dye et al (2005) state it provides a useful theory and intuitive guide to understand aspects of human motivation. The humanistic approach and its models represent that people have the capacity to guide and shape their destiny and thinking to design courses of action they can follow or amend as circumstances or situations change (Davis and Palladino, 2010). Humanistic Models Theory of Trying The theory of trying represents a consumer seeking to act on a particular thought or series of thoughts connected to a potential purchase (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). Carsrud et al (2009, p. 155) explain it as an attitude toward a reasoned action is replaced by an attitude toward trying and an intention is restricted to an intention to try. The theory integrates hierarchical goals into a behavioural context that people use to work toward a decision (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). It delves into the processes individuals work through in attempting to solve a selection problem that includes looking at the varied options that are available. Figure 3 The Theory of Trying (Bray, 2008, p. 27) As shown by the above, the stages contributing to the theory channel into intention to try before being considered or actualised. The issue with the theory is that it represents a subjective process that seeks to identify a switch in consumer intention from attitude to trying (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). This entails opinions based on the recorded intentions or attitudes of individuals that might have been perceived incorrectly. The other aspect that represents a weakness is that it is skewed toward the evaluation of the potential consumption patterns of individuals as opposed to their buying behaviour (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). Humanistic Models Model of Goal Directed Behaviour The model of goal-directed behaviour was build on the tenets of the theory of planned behaviour as it advances the aspect of goals as its main foundation rather than behaviours (Hagger and Chatzisarantis, 2007). Desire is a critical component as its represents a driving force: Figure 4 Model of Goal Directed Behaviour (Bray, 2008, p. 28) The model of goal-directed behaviour is complex due to attitude, positive and negative anticipated emotions and subjective norms contributing to desires. As shown in the above figure, desire is a critical component that also represents a potential source of misunderstanding as it is a subjective area that can easily be misconstrued concerning consumer behaviour. Conclusion This exploration of cognitive and humanistic models uncovered that the varied theories and approaches under each has their own unique attributes. It was also found that each tends to have specific attributes that fit varied situations or circumstances based on what marketers are seeking to uncover to utilise in the development of campaigns and approaches to generating sales. The cognitive approach seeks to uncover experiences, feelings, values, expectations and thoughts consumers develop and use as a part of their decision, and reasons for action. The three approaches under consumer decision making primarily represent rational (utility), expectations (satisficing) and value (prospect) approaches. The theory of buyer behaviour is a complex process that is influenced by marketing (the 4Ps), along with purchase considerations and psychological aspects that include perception and learning. The deeper a marketer elects to explore the above leads to using the theory of reasoned action that seeks to separate intention from behavioural aspects. This can thus be used to delve into the theory of planned behaviour that adds attitude and perceived behavioural aspects. Whilst the humanistic models concerning consumer behaviour have a close affinity to behavioural perspectives, they place more emphasis on psychodynamic aspects and individuals using phenomenon that is observable and learned from such behaviours. Maslows hierarchy of needs explained that the self actualisation phase as the top tier was applicable under the humanistic approach as it represents the stage where base needs no longer control decisions. The theory of trying demonstrates the above as it represents a consumer seeking to act on a particular thought as the means to decide on a selection using hierarchical goals. Goal directed behaviour is more personally motivated as it utilises desires as a core component in the process. It was found that each of the theories and models examined under cognit ive and humanistic approaches had their strengths and shortcomings. This is because each of these models are based on differing approaches such as uncovering experiences, feelings, values, expectations and thoughts under cognitive, compared to psychodynamic and individuals observable phenomenon for humanistic. This study brought out that no one model or theory adequately explores or explains consumer decision making or behaviour, but that through combinations, marketers can arrive at more comprehensive understandings. References Ahuja, M., Thatcher, J. (2005) Moving beyond intentions and toward the theory of trying: effects of work environment and gender on post-adoption information technology use. MIS Quarterly. 29(3). pp. 433-437. Ajzen, I. 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